Merci à Olivier Albot, Steve Barrow, Kenneth Bilby, Jean-Pierre Boutellier, Carl Bradshaw, Yves Calvez, Stéphane Colin, Larry Debay, Mike Garnice mentomusic.com, Colby Graham, David Katz, Herbie Miller, Lee Perry, Leah Rosenberg, Dominique Rousseau, Edward Seaga, George Eaton Simpson, Fabrice Uriac et Leonardo Vidigal.
1. Écouter Trinidad - Calypso 1939-1959 (Frémeaux et Associés FA5348) et Africa in America 1920-1962 (FA5397).
2. Écouter les tambours marrons enregistrés par Kenneth Bilby sur Drums of Defiance: Marron Music from the earliest Free Black Communities of Jamaica (Smithsonian Folkways CD SF 40412) et lire sa remarquable somme sur les Marrons de Jamaïque, True-Born Maroons (University Press of Florida, 2005).
3. Écouter aussi « Perseverance » par Count Lasher sur l’album Jamaica - Mento 1951-1958 dans cette collection (FA 5275).
4. Écouter Bahamas - Goombay 1951-1959 (Frémeaux et Associés FA5302).
5. Écouter Bermuda - Gombey & Calypso 1953-1960 (Frémeaux et Associés FA5374).
6. Simpson, George E. « Political cultism in West Kingston », Social and Economic Studies 4, 1955.
7. Lynn, W. G. et Grant, C., The Herpetology of Jamaica (Bulletin of the Institute of Jamaica, Science Series 1), 1940.
8. Écouter Jamaica - Rhythm and Blues 1956-1961 (Frémeaux et Associés FA5358).
9. Un livre de compositions recueillies par Ira D. Sankey, une revivaliste états-unienne du XIXe siècle.
10. Écouter Jamaica - Rhythm and Blues 1956-1961 (Frémeaux et Associés FA5358).
11. Lire Le Rap est né en Jamaïque de Bruno Blum (Le Castor Astral).
12. Écouter Gospel Vol. 2 - Gospel Quartets 1921-1942 (Frémeaux et Associés FA026).
13. Écouter l’album Jamaica-Rhythm and Blues 1956-1961 (FA5358) dans cette collection.
The Roots of Negro Spirituals and Jazz
Apart from some very rare sources – Cuba, Haiti – these are the earliest recordings in existence of genuine Caribbean rituals, and so this album is precious testimony to a legacy handed down directly from the days of slavery: it is a soundtrack which gives those dark days a tangible reality. The music here comes from the same source as the Jamaican reggae born in Kingston in the Sixties, and these pieces certainly bear a resemblance to the music rooted in Bantu (etc.) and present-day Senegal Bambara music played (albeit never recorded) at the major bamboulas in 19th century New Orleans, which prefigured the jazz in Congo Square. Music-forms evolve constantly of course, but these no doubt come closest, and are probably the best indications we have of the veritable origins of the Negro spirituals, jazz, gospel and other Afro-American genres which came later. Pukkumina Cymbal, and its breathing-rhythm, jumps dizzily into a trance – and into previous centuries –, and the title John Canoe, with its drums and fife, is also significant: other “drum and fife” pieces influenced by the English military, which exist in Jamaica and The United States (Othar Turner, Jessie Mae Hemphill) feature a more modern drum-kit, but not these hand-drums playing Afro-Jamaican rhythms.
Jamaica
The trade in men and women across the Atlantic caused an upheaval in the history of mankind, but it also greatly affected music history. Afro-Jamaican rites and religions – often assimilated with sorcery – were persecuted not only throughout 300 years of slavery (1517-1838), but also in the very difficult colonial period that followed before Independence (1962). And the response of the Jamaican people was always profound, palpable mys-ticism, as evidenced by this music, recorded a century after slavery’s abolition (cf. Bob Marley, 1977: “There’s a natural mystic blowing through the air. If you listen carefully now, you will hear.”) These types of expression are almost no longer in existence in the original forms heard here. This album contains the essential: the oldest Jamaican recordings which exist. The earliest of them all, the Mento song Linstead Market/Sweety Charlie (1939) which opens this record, shows that the “Matilda” melody (also 1939) written by the Trinidadian King Radio – made famous overnight by Harry Belafonte – was probably derived from this traditional Jamaican song.
Negro Spirituals
Planters saw any kind of organisation between Africans as a potential threat: slaves were not allowed to read, write, teach or preach. African religious rites were banned in 1761, at the risk of exile or the death penalty… The dancing, drumming and chanting known as Kumina were linked with the feared obeah, a mixture of Afro-Jamaican spiritual cultures which the colonists considered sorcery, or with the myal, the obeah’s antidote. Like different types of music, instruments, dances, art-forms, languages, clothing, traditions, slave religions and drums were also forbidden. So slaves created their own, secret ceremonies, like the Creole Kumina mixture heard here, which is close to its animist roots in Congo. Evangelism had partly succeeded there, beginning in the 15th century: were some slaves already Christians? Even so, the Zion and Pukkumina Revival cults – and then the Rastafarians – preferred their own interpretations of The Bible. Derived from the Kumina, the first Jamaican spirituals were songs of hope and faith with stories of everyday life and The Bible. Played here by Rastafarians accompanied by nyabinghi drums derived from from Kongo (Bantu) people (with the same rhythm as Kumina Drumming), Rock a Man Soul is a famous spiritual which appeared in 1867 – in the first-ever collection of the genre, Slave Songs of the United States – under the title “Rock O’ My Soul”, here adapted into the rasta jargon Italk. Gospel developed in Jamaica from the Thirties onwards, and “So High” was a classic (recorded by many, including Elvis Presley). The Rastas slightly changed the words and here it becomes King So High, in reference to Jesus reincarnated as the King of the Ethiopians, Haile Selassie I, who was “The Most High”.
Rastafarianism
Ethiopianism, and then Marcus Garvey’s international “Back to Africa” movement in the 20’s, inspired the Rastafari movement which came out of Revivalism. The African influence is tangible when you listen to Preparation for Baptism Table 1. According to the first article ever to appear on the subject of the Rastafari1 (and several recordings included here), the number of cults accounted for during this period totalled 80, each with adepts (between 25 and 200) who would gather dressed in white (with women wearing red and blue turbans), in rudimentary wooden huts with earthen floors. Revivalist leaders – called variously Leader, Captain, Reverend or Mother – were generally authoritarians who took care of monetary donations themselves, distributing orders to their disciples whose businesses they controlled... Around 80% of them were mature or elderly women (many men had left the island, and some women substituted their fervour with mystic adoration – if not adoration of the priests themselves). Baptists stamped their feet in rhythm, using hand-claps to mark the off-beat (as in the titles by the Ras Tafari Youth Group or in the future skank-style of reggae) while chanting, but their contributions have nothing ostensibly African.
Several Pentecostal churches practised trances, and featured possession by spirits, while others, like the Kumina adepts, made no allusion to The Bible at all. From 1932, well apart, the Rastafarians would revisit The Bible from an African point of view, denouncing its colonial interpretations as racist. By the 1950s however, the various Zion Revival, Pocomania and Ras Tafari practices of the countryside and isolated ghettoes were hard to tell from another, including by adepts themselves, who simply preferred to congregate near to their own dwellings. According to Simpson: “An ordinary Sunday Evening Service among Revivalists begins with two drums and a European bass-drum played with sticks, a tambourine, scrapers, hand-claps and chants. The Leader appears only after a quarter of an hour, asking for ‘another chorus’ for example, and might then improvise a sermon before parading in a circle, anti-clockwise, around the altar, followed by some twenty disciples bowing forwards and breathing heavily (“sounding”) and stamping (“trumping”) to crush evil spirits and cause them to leave... The Leader sometimes ends the service with a healing-session.”
Kumina and Pukkumina
Kongo culture marked the Americas, and Revivalist ceremonies were concentrated in the western and eastern outskirts of Kingston, where rural immigrants (described here in Me Nuh Go Back) gathered in wretched areas like Trench Town and became known as rude boys. Peter Tosh and Bob Marley grew up there in the Fifties, in a context of revivalist mysticism which formed the roots of the Rasta movement. By 1953 the capital numbered at least 25.000 revivalists (some 3% of the Jamaican population) living in conditions of “heat, promiscuity, no work, dust and dirt”, and for those who didn’t turn to theft, prostitution or gambling to survive, the only chance of escape was an artistic talent such as music or dancing. Music was played almost uninterruptedly during ceremonies, and separated into five categories: hymns, choruses (melodic, rhythmical songs with a single verse, usually four lines repeated at will, accompanied by drums or handclaps), cymbals (specific to Pukkumina, they were improvised melodies with words based on mainly unintelligible syllables – “tongues” – said to be conversations between the spirits and the soloist-singer), group-choruses (different from cymbals in that melodies were sung by groups and not improvised), and blowing tunes, sung over specific melodies invoking the spirits. The lyrics of the latter were a mixture of “tongues” and English (cf. Pukkumina Prayer with rattles).
Ring Play
For slaves in the fields, music was a (rare) opportunity to free the soul and body from strife, and nursery-rhymes like Ring Play 1 & 2, family-games and funerals (Kumina ceremonies, and dinki mini with its drums) were part of this. The former gathered the whole family on the ninth night after a funeral, and these pieces were recorded just before a Kumina ceremony while waiting for all the participants to assemble. The “master of ceremonies” here improvises rhythmically in a style which prefigures the DJs and their sound systems (already popular on the island then) playing jazz and rhythm and blues2. Ring Play 2 is similar to the old English game “Follow my leader”.
Revival Zion
The first Zion Chorus is a negro spiritual typical of magnificent “chorus” singing in Revivalist ceremonies, with drums, tambourines and hand-clapping as accompaniment. On Zion Chorus and Blowing, a girl sings with several participants responding in chorus, and a rhythm supplied by “possessed” adepts who inhale and exhale in unison, breathing rapidly and heavily in a manner called “groaning”. The leader can be heard clearly in the second part, and the spiritual messages were often Bible passages. Chorus has lyrics suggesting that spirits are entering into contact with the group (“I hear, oh I hear, I hear archangels blow”) while Zion Groaning is a characteristic piece in the “drilling” style.
Rastafari
Shortly after slavery’s abolition, numerous Kongo people came to work in Jamaica, bringing their drums to the St. Thomas region; their ntoré rhythms from the Kivu province surfaced in the nyabinghi music of Rastas. Different religious groups rejected colonial beliefs and practised Kumina rites, but they were denounced as pagan and Satanic by Anglican colonials and various Revivalist religions. In the 20th century, the Rastafari movement adopted this rejection of Kumina and turned to The Bible. Organized around the “Return To Africa” (“Zion”) concept, the Rastafari movement took to reading The Bible from a deeply African standpoint, although they also believed in spirits or “duppies” – ghosts – (cf. Bob Marley’s “Let me tell you that I am a duppy conqueror”, in his classic 1971 song “Duppy Conqueror”). With its “Back to Africa” stance, We Are Going Home is the oldest-known Rasta recording. Rasta music of the time resembled that of certain Baptist and Pentecostal church ceremonies, but it rejected Christian complacency in slavery and insisted on the divine nature of King Haile Selassie I. Count Ossie’s Rasta percussionists adopted the type of music heard here on the pre-rasta Kette Drum Suite and played those Congo rhythms to the Rasta audience. Count Ossie also played non-religious music, like Chubby, played by the Mellow Cats duo.
Folk
Louise Bennett (1919-2006) was probably the most important of the 20th century Jamaican folk-singers (cf. Jamaica – Mento 1951–1958). A charismatic figure, she recorded many songs and traditional tales using local Jamaican dialect and a colourful vocabulary. Recorded for her album Children’s Songs and Games, Jamaica Alphabet has rhyming lyrics boasting the merits of the island’s fruits and vegetables (“A is for ackee, salt fish’s best friend / B is for bammy, banana and then…/ C is for coco, coconut, callaloo / D is for dumplin and dokunu…”) while Me Want Me Daughter is a mother’s cry as she tries to recover her mistreated daughter: “Ah yuh a go beat up me daughter so / On account of a herring head / On account of a mackerel jaw / On account of a piece of bread / On account of a fowl foot / On account of a fowl head (…) / On account of a coolie gal.”
In 1954 Bennett sang Dip Dem, a song about the most famous healer and revivalist preacher Alexander Bedward, who encouraged his adepts to enjoy the benefits of immersion as a means of healing: “Dip dem Bedward, dip dem / Dip dem inna healing stream / Dip dem sweet but not too deep / Dip dem fe cure bad feeling.”Later known as “bogle” or “dancehall beat”, this rhythm resurfaced in the late 1980s and switched from roots reggae to a new era in Jamaican music. Edric Connor and the Caribbeans sing two traditional pieces taken from “Songs from Jamaica”, the first album of Jamaican music ever released (1952); they appeared two years before Louise Bennett’s first albums.
Mento
Mento dominated Jamaican popular music until the mid-Fifties, when jazz, rhythm and blues and sound system DJs swamped local music entirely. It was based on the same Afro-Jamaican rhythms as the religious and folk music heard here, and sometimes included traditional songs like Slide Mongoose. But it sparkled with original compositions like this Me Nuh Go Back by Harold Richardson, one of the best singer-songwriters of the genre; the author says he refuses to go back to the countryside after tasting the lights of Kingston, its running water, bathers, Carib Theater and rock and roll. From 1958 onwards, Jamaica began producing rock records3 which enjoyed great success in the island’s dancehalls (and precipitated Mento’s decline) : “Me nuh go back Jim me nuh go back / No powers on earth can take me back / Me love de tung [town] boat night and day… At home me have to carry water hard / Here me have de pipe right here in de yard.”Like other styles in this anthology, Mento shares a common legacy of the Caribbean, from the Mississippi to Trinidad. Called Back to Back here, the calypso Zombie Jamboree was also a hit for the Kingston Trio in 1957 (Hear it on our Voodoo in America 1926-1961 anthology FA 5375): “One female zombie wouldn’t behave / See her she jumping on top the grave / In one hand she holding a quart rum / With the other hand she knocking congo drum…”
In 1921, the calypso star Houdini was the first to play Sly Mongoose in Trinidad. Originally the piece mocked Revivalism star Alexander Bedward, with the “mongoose” allusion a reference to his numerous female conquests; Count Lasher’s remarkable version of Sly Mongoose has completely different verses: the mongoose is still a seducer, but here defies authority (Matilda’s Corner is a Kingston police-station…), and the “jump up” dance can be found in Pukkumina and in rhythm and blues : “Slide mongoose, mongoose your name gone abroad / Mongoose go up a Matilda corner / Take out Miss Nancy big ripe banana / push it inna him one gal corner, slide mongoose.” This version is typical of rural Mento’s traditional ins-truments: acoustic guitar, banjo, bamboo sax and “rhumba box” (a sort of giant sanza or kalimba, a bass instrument in the lamellophone family), also heard on pieces by the Ras Tafari Youth Group and on Back to Back. Charlie Parker’s Quartet also recorded Sly Mongoose in 1952.